Showing posts with label permafrost. Show all posts
Showing posts with label permafrost. Show all posts

Thursday, August 5, 2021

Siberian Permafrost Turns Carbon-12 Tap On: Radiocarbon Diminishing in Air

by Veli Albert Kallio

[ image by Peter Carter of Climate Emergency Institute ]

We at Sea Research Society's Environmental Affairs Department are very concerned of the melting permafrost terrain and methane clathrate deposits of the Arctic Ocean's sea bed (which are seeding Siberia's air once again with carbon-12). This is because Arctic Ocean's methane clathrates, methane (CH4) & carbon dioxide (CO₂) deposits are thought to be the world's largest reservoir of carbon. When it comes to methane, much of that in the Arctic is a side-product of geochemical processes since the birth of our planet some 4 billion years ago and so it contains ZERO radiocarbon (14C). To these are added the various undersea and land-based deposits of ancient fossil carbon which too have zero or just minute content of carbon-14.

We see already the Arctic at a tipping point, reaching a cliff edge to zero carbon-14 presence in tundra's plants emerging over recent years.

Above should set off alarm bells to archaeologists so much so that if carbon-14 can now disappear from the observed portfolio of the carbon isotopes in the plants and animals by radiocarbon-dilution effect from both the ancient geo-carbon and also the fossil carbon sources on land and sea bed. One of the key pillars to calibrate not only radiocarbon dating, but other methods as well that have been indirectly calibrated with the help of carbon-14 as their control measurements, is being attacked by the furious Mother Nature. We stand now on an increasingly elastic and shifting sands on this question. And why just now?

The answer to this is straightforward: the man-made global warming. So, now recall that the Arctic Ocean's sea level fell between some 120-130 metres from its present-day water table during the Ice Ages as water accumulated within the glaciers on the land - and that depressurisation (in addition to warming) is actually the primary route to destroy methane clathrates as it disintegrates at lower water pressures. The broad rule is therefore that the less water in ocean, the more methane clathrate (methane ice) begins to disintegrate.

Methane clathrates (methane ice deposits) as the world's biggest carbon reservoir would have inevitably oozed out copious amounts of carbon-12 into air during the lowering of the Ice Age era ocean water table. At the same time, the ice-filled and cold world oceans were mopping away gases from the air far more intensively than they do today leaving little atmospheric carbon-14 behind in this process. The atmospheric carbon is very rich in radiocarbon if compared to carbon in water courses and oceans - let alone in the ancient soils. This is because carbon-14 forms in atmosphere from nitrogen due to cosmic radiation. As cold liquids hold more gases than warmer liquids, it is not much of hocus pocus for radiocarbon to disappear from the air into these ice-filled and cold oceans teeming with much more marine life than today.

Today there are over 27,000 recorded methane craters discovered on the Arctic Ocean's sea bed and many have diameter of 1 km or wider. The largest methane crater found so far is 750 km² in its area and has the lost from its deposit thickness over 300 metres (and all of that is pure carbon-12 that was originally within methane ice, of course).

Ethnoclimatology Motion UNGA 101292 which the United Nations Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar authorised for tabling on the floor of the UN General Assembly - as the closing plea of the opening proceedings of the first UN Year of Indigenous Peoples - stipulated a faster case history for the Ice Ages period where global warming was initially driven by methane releases from the seabed while carbon dioxide emerged later as the respondent to the warming by high altitude methane. This then tipped the trajectory of the world's constantly cooling climate at the Last Glacial Maximum towards global warming (methane molecule-to-molecule to carbon dioxide molecule is 256 times more powerful in trapping sun's heat). This system tipping point reversed the cooling of the Ice Ages from the earlier snowball-earth runaway global cooling trajectory (which resulted from the continuously advancing snow lines of the Ice Ages that were heading towards the Equator).

The last time methane came to "save the earth" from runaway freezing (snowball earth), but at our current situation we have triggered its instability by the unforeseen levels of carbon dioxide now at 420 ppm that forms a very-difficult-to-get-rid-of background climatic forcing. This issue of carbon-12 from the frozen polar regions, called cryosphere, is not just for the archaeological community and about the timing of our historic events in the distant past to be understood more accurately, but it is a real existential threat today for our society. This time methane is not coming to us from the ground as our saviour like it was during the Ice Ages, but it is now our foremost enemy after our man-made releases of carbon dioxide.

Carbon dioxide released today lingers in air for 1000 years or even more, although bouncing back-and-forth with surface layers in the oceans, but it is only very gradually disappearing from the air by chemical weathering by the olivine group rocks or soils containing olivine group minerals. Also, very deeply penetrated plant roots lock carbon gradually away as well as the sea plankton if it falls onto the deep ocean bed. It is a grave misconception to think that the plant life is a great natural filter than can sort our mess out. The plants are rather geared to take carbon in as carbon dioxide to only form their leaves, let the autumn come and those same leaves are due to fall onto the ground and turn back into carbon dioxide. Flowers and trees are not any sort of Santa Claus to do that job for us.

As carbon's locking away is not at all immediate as shown above but as it can take thousand years or more to do so, so the same principle applied to the huge releases of Palaeolithic methane (which as lighter-than-air gas resides mainly in the upper troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere). As most of methane has been seen in recent years accumulating at fastest rate at the highest altitudes in the atmosphere - far above the surface - it cannot be very well represented in the ice cores. It simply is neither trapped in the snow crystals very much - and consequently - nor seen in the ice cores (that are basically just taken out of the pack of compacted fallen snow) - as most of methane resides well above the cloud level.

This explains why the global warming - which ended the Ice Ages - appears in the ice cores already centuries to thousands of years before the rising concentrations of carbon dioxide is seen in air trapped in the bubbles of the ice cores. Methane oxidizes best to carbon dioxide in warm and moist air, but during the xeric climate conditions of the ice ages and also amplified by the xeric heights in dry stratosphere, methane oxidised back then far slower than it does today. Thus, the huge heating effect of methane melted the ice sheets of the Ice Ages back into the world ocean and as soon as the sea levels rose, methane clathrates got re-pressurised - while the slip-sliding and collapsing ice sheets and ice shelves produced ice bergs and more sea ice to cool both the oceans and the climate. The supply of new methane from ocean beds soon was cut off and in due course also the permafrost releases also began to diminish as climate began to cool due to growing shortage of methane in air. By Holocene Thermal Maximum or Optimum any further global warming had stopped as by then there was little high altitude methane left in upper troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere. As a consequence of this new tipping point, the atmospheric temperature rise ceased and settled for the Holocene equilibrium and then dropped slightly for the next few thousands of years.

The above explains, for example, the radiocarbon-outliers of the earliest Egyptian carbon samples being typically more carbon-14 aged than their actual age. Quite ridiculously, the recent discovery of wood material in relation to the Great Pyramid of Giza, which was built by Pharaoh Khufu was radiocarbon-dated to 34th century BCE. This is more than eight (8) full centuries before the historically-known date when the Great Pyramid of Giza was built.

In fact, the timing of 34 centuries before Common Era is a date that occurred long before even the Egyptian state even existed! Yet, these readings were apparently checked very carefully and cross-checked again. The explanation flirted - which we at SRS are strenuously disputing - is that the Egyptians would have stored the wood for over eight centuries before the put that wood in use to build the Khufu pyramid. This is outrageous stupidity as it is very clear that huge bulk quantities of wood would have been required and which could never have been stored for such a long time before its final use. There simpy weren't even manpower and storage facilities in the 34th century BCE Egypt. Even if the wood would have been first used in the construction of the Sakkara Pyramid, the first pyramid, and then recycled to the Great Pyramid of Giza for re-use, it still would not be sufficiently aged enough to explain the carbon-14 readings obtained as 34th century BCE.

The best (or - better to say - only) explanation to the above is the effect of lingering carbon dioxide in the air remaining centuries to over thousands of years after the Palaeolithic releases of geological and fossil carbon from the Arctic permafrost soils and seabed.

Our whole economy (along history-keeping too) stands and falls if the Arctic methane and carbon dioxide emissions of carbon-12 continue this way unabated as today. The world needs cooling urgently and far less CO₂ perhaps 350 ppm or less. Of course, there is also the separate environmental issue of Siberia's forest fires this year and last (2020 and 2021) with a forest of the size of France said to have been burnt.

Above are serious issues where historic dating of carbon is a minor issue but where the dangers from global warming to human society must remain our supreme concern.

A particularly suspicious case to us is the Japanese Palaeolithic as the island sits east of the vast Eurasian landmass and is exposed to winds from north-west that come via Siberia. In particular the Pandora's Box of permafrost carbon-12 is suspect culprit in these comments:

"Ground stone and polished tools: The Japanese Palaeolithic is unique in that it incorporates one of the earliest known sets of ground stone and polished stone tools in the world .. The tools, which have been dated to around 30,000 BC, are a technology associated in the rest of the world with the beginning of the Neolithic around 10,000 BC. It is not known why such tools were created so early in Japan. Because of this originality, the Japanese Palaeolithic period in Japan does not exactly match the traditional definition of Palaeolithic based on stone technology (chipped stone tools). Japanese Palaeolithic tool implements thus display Mesolithic and Neolithic traits as early as 30,000 BC." (Wikipedia, Japanese Palaeolithic)

The effect of carbon-12 seeding in air - as the westerly winds roll gradually over the terrain of Siberia and Arctic to pick up old carbon on its way to east - is seen to be the greatest in the north-east corner of Siberia (i.e. northern Yakutia) where the plants currently appear sucking in major permafrost inputs of ancient carbon. This would suggest that the northern China would be also quite prone to similar permafrost-based carbon-12 seeding. Then, when one accounts for the blocking effects of the Karakoram and the Himalayan mountain ranges in south and the very limited ability for the air to rise in the thin-air area over the vast Tibetan high plateau, the air is mostly guided towards South-East China that also ought see fairly elevated levels of carbon-12. This creates in my mind a question mark over the Chinese archaeological claim that they created the world's first clay pottery some 10,000-15,000 years before others - the people of the Middle East - let alone, the 'laggards' of Europe.

So, is this then another radiocarbon illusion created by the Mother Earth?

"A 2012 publication in the Science journal, announced that the earliest pottery yet known anywhere in the world was found at Xianren Cave site dated by radiocarbon to between 20,000 and 19,000 years before present, at the end of the Last Glacial Period. The carbon 14 dating was established by carefully dating surrounding sediments. Many of the pottery fragments had scorch marks, suggesting that the pottery was used for cooking. These early pottery containers were made well before the invention of agriculture (dated to 10,000 to 8,000 BC), by mobile foragers who hunted and gathered their food during the Late Glacial Maximum." (Wikipedia, Xianren Cave)

There are other issues than a lack of such old pottery findings in addition to the suggested radiocarbon-dilution effect that archeologists must consider. One reason for not finding pottery, or encountering less of it, would be the mobility and the lack of accumulation of domestic waste in heaps, "tells", as in the Middle East because the people were likely highly nomadic. It might be more practical to use wooden vessels, leather skins and avoid pots by other means like roasting meat over the open fire rather than carrying the relatively bulky clay pots (at least for anything other than for use as a cooking vessel for vegetables, seeds, roots, or herbs). Animals and fish could be roosted on rocks or over the fire as and so the need might be just for an occasional cooking pot. When to the potential mobility is added temporary camping in places away from the rivers and the streams, it is easy to miss out vast majority of pottery left behind on the huge grassland steppes of Central Asia and China.

On the other hand, the idea of clay pots could have spread far faster as useful and easy-to-copy practice to bake clay, and the large c-14 dates might be almost entirely carbon artefacts.

At British Museum's conference Anthropology, Weather, and Climate Change we presented a poster Looking at the Forward Running Clocks' - Carbon Cycles and Time from Pleistocene to Present outlining some prime candidates that we suspected as fallen for the Arctic geo-carbon and fossil carbon seeding effects (a link attached at the end).

The carbon "seeding effects" are not only localised and regional radiocarbon anomalies. There are important anomalies also outside the time scales of these seasonal and regional weather patterns - on a global climate scale. As an indicator of this, there is the already stated anomalous global warming that is seen occurring centuries-to-millennia before the rise of carbon dioxide in air trapped within the ice cores before it is enriched with carbon dioxide. This anomaly (an exceedingly toted argument by the climate change denialists) can be associated with the above said methane leaks from methane clathrates (geo-carbon and fossil carbon) from ocean bed, and methane from permafrost (fossil carbon) at very high altitudes - where the were warming the air well before carbon dioxide arrived to the scene. This carbon sourcing would have seeded also the entire overall global air mass to at least some extent with this extra carbon-12 - though somewhat less than the northern anomalies to create also a somewhat skewed background comparisons level (less "aged" than the higher permafrost emissions seen nearer their Arctic sources) but also radiocarbon-diluted.

In all this, remember, it only takes a doubling of carbon-12 in the air to add one half-life (5,730 years) to the measured radiocarbon age. If you reduce it to a quarter, that is already in the range of over 10,000 years - and it is in these ranges or even more than that - these gigantic Arctic carbon stores painted our ancient biological bodies with extra carbon-12.

We have devised some unique experiments that can fully differentiate any carbon from the above Arctic sources from the naturally occurring portfolio of the carbon isotopes.

I just got the latest methane blobs reported 02:30 am today. These images are far from good although they do not create such a television theatre or environmental porn like the forest fires, floods and hurricanes do. Yesterday's readings are "our canary in a coal mine" to show how badly methane and carbon dioxide are now streaming out from the Arctic permafrost soils and seabeds. Our past trust has been to be over-relying on plain or slightly tinkered readings how to interpret radiocarbon. This will be gone as this is how carbon-12 now enters our biological materials from Northern Asia with its culprit caught red handed.

The revised radiocarbon-oriented vocabulary on the Arctic carbon-12 emissions are: Ice Ages' Last Glacial Maximum (= Sea-Level Drop Maximum) until Holocene Thermal Maximum/Optimum (= Permafrost Melting Maximum). The past ancient methane "blobs" were in a vastly larger scales than those seen here today. As I said above, carbon dioxide concentrations could not get over 180 ppm during the Ice Ages due to the cold and iceberg and sea ice filled oceans dissolving gases from atmosphere far faster than today whilst the carbon-12 taps of lowered seabeds and then melting permafrost remained highly venting. This suppressed atmospheric carbon-14 manifestation for a very long time. Situation on graphics on Tuesday, 3 August 2021; received Wednesday, 4th August 2021 at 02:30 GMT.

Our research of ethnoclimatological records show consistent records in Sumer, India, East Asia, and Mesoamerica that the ethnic time-keeping is consistently pointing towards faster causative, duration and termination history for the Ice Ages and as per UNGA 101292. This is also at the core of my 2023 moon expedition bid to raise alarm on above dangers from the Moon to get the First Nations of Americas ethnohistorical climate recollections taken more seriously and to establish Ethnoclimatology as a new branch of science akin to Ethnobotany.


By Veli Albert Kallio, FRGS | Vice-President, Sea Research Society | Ethnoclimatologist

• United Nations General Assembly Motion 101292 for UNFCCC's Talanoa Dialogue

• 'Looking At The Forward Running Clocks' - Carbon Cycles and Time From Pleistocene to Present
https://www.academia.edu/29473262/Looking_At_The_Forward_Running_Clocks_Carbon_Cycles_and_Time_From_Pleistocene_to_Present

Former Director of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, London, Professor Sir Ghillean Prance, FRS, is fully behind me on my moon flight bid to raise alarm bells on above problem. I hope a positive outcome by the end of this month to be included in the moon flight crew.

• Moon Flight Crew Interview of Veli Albert Kallio (Step 3) for SpaceX 2023 Lunar Mission

Sunday, November 24, 2019

The breach of the Paris Agreement

By Andrew Glikson
Earth and climate scientist
Australian National University



Since its inception the Paris Agreement has been in question due to, among other:
  • its broad definition, specifically holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels;
  • its non-binding nature; and 
  • accounting tricks by vested interests.
The goal assumes pre-determined limits can be placed on greenhouse gas levels and temperatures beyond which they would not continue to rise. Unfortunately these targets do not appear to take account of the amplifying positive feedback effects from land and oceans under the high cumulative greenhouse gas levels and their warming effects. Thus unfortunately the current high CO₂ levels of about 408 ppm and near-500ppm CO₂-equivalent (CO₂+methane+nitrous oxide) would likely continue to push temperatures upwards.

Significant climate science evidence appears to have been left out of the equation. The accord hinges on the need to reduce emissions, which is essential, but it does not indicate how further temperature rise can be avoided under the conditions of a high-CO₂ atmosphere, which triggers carbon release, unless massive efforts at sequestration (drawdown) of greenhouse gases are undertaken. Inherent in global warming are amplifying positive feedbacks, including albedo (reflection) decline due to the melting of ice and the opening of dark water surfaces, increased water vapor contents of the atmosphere in tropical regions which enhances the greenhouse effect, reduced sequestration of CO₂ by the warming oceans, desiccation of vegetation, fires, release of methane from permafrost and other processes. This means that even abrupt reductions in emissions may not be sufficient to stem global warming, unless accompanied by sequestration of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere to a lower level, recommended as below 350 ppm CO₂ by James Hansen, the leading climate scientist.

The world is on track to produce 50% more fossil fuels than can be burned before reaching the limit prescribed by the Paris Agreement, with currently planned coal, oil and gas outputs making the Paris Agreement goal impossible. Projected fossil fuel production in 2030 being more than is consistent with 2°C, and 120% more than that for 1.5°C.

Unbelievably, according to the International Monetary Fund, “In 2017 the world subsidized fossil fuels by $5.2 trillion, equal to roughly 6.5% of global GDP”, which is more than the total the world spends on human health. Such subsidies cannot possibly be consistent with the Paris Agreement. The pledge to end fossil fuel subsidies by 2025 by the G7 nations, with exceptions by the UK and Japan, may come too late as global CO₂ concentrations, already intersecting the stability limits of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, are rising at a rate of 2 to 3 ppm per year, the highest in many millions of years.

Despite the scientific consensus regarding the anthropogenic origin of global warming, the world’s biggest fossil fuel corporations are taking a defiant stance against warnings that reserves of coal, oil and gas are already several times larger than can be burned if the world’s governments are to meet their pledge to tackle climate change. ExxonMobil said new reserves in the Arctic and Canadian tar sands must be exploited. Peabody Energy, the world’s largest private coal company, said global warming was “an environmental crisis predicted by flawed computer models”. Glencore Xstrata said that governments would fail to implement measures to cut carbon emissions. The World Bank and Bank of England have already warned of the “serious risk” climate action poses to trillions of dollars of fossil fuel assets.

Not to mention the risks to the living Earth and its billions of inhabitants!

The apparent neglect of scientific advice is not an isolated instance. It is not uncommon that climate reports are dominated by the views of economists, lawyers, bureaucrats and politicians, often overlooking the evidence presented by some of the world’s highest climate science authorities. Whereas the IPCC reports include excellent and comprehensive summaries of the peer-reviewed literature, the summaries for policy makers only partly represent the evidence and views of scientific authorities in the field, including those who have identified global warming in the first place.
Figure 2. from: James Hansen, data through June 2019

There exists a tendency in the media to report averages, such as average global temperature values, rather than the increasingly-common high zonal, regional and local anomalies.

For example, the annual mean global temperature rise of for 2018 is about one third the Arctic mean temperature rise (Fig. 2). Given that developments in the Arctic bear major consequences for climate change, the global mean  does not represent the seriousness of the climate crisis.

Another example is the way extremes weather events are reported as isolated instances, neglecting the rising frequency and intensity of hurricanes, storms, fires and droughts, indicated in frequency plots (Fig 3.).

Figure 3. Rise in geophysical, meteorological, hydrologocal and climatological events. Munich RE
It is not until international and national institutions take full account of what climate science is indicating that a true picture of the climate crisis will be communicated to the public.


Andrew Glikson
Dr Andrew Glikson
Earth and climate scientist
Australian National University


Books:
- The Archaean: Geological and Geochemical Windows into the Early Earth
- The Asteroid Impact Connection of Planetary Evolution
- Asteroids Impacts, Crustal Evolution and Related Mineral Systems with Special Reference to Australia
- Climate, Fire and Human Evolution: The Deep Time Dimensions of the Anthropocene
- The Plutocene: Blueprints for a Post-Anthropocene Greenhouse Earth
- Evolution of the Atmosphere, Fire and the Anthropocene Climate Event Horizon
- From Stars to Brains: Milestones in the Planetary Evolution of Life and Intelligence



Monday, September 10, 2018

Blue Ocean Event

Blue Ocean Event as part of four Arctic tipping points

What will be the consequences of a Blue Ocean Event, i.e. the disappearance of virtually all sea ice from the Arctic Ocean, as a result of the warming caused by people?


Paul Beckwith discusses some of the consequences in the video below. As long as the Arctic Ocean has sea ice, most sunlight gets reflected back into space and the 'Center-of-Coldness' remains near the North Pole, says Paul. With the decline of the sea ice, however, the 'Center-of-Coldness' will shift to the middle of Greenland. Accordingly, we can expect the jet streams to shift their center of rotation 17° southward, i.e. away from the North Pole towards Greenland, with profound consequences for our global weather patterns and climate system, for plants and animals, and for human civilization, e.g. our ability to grow food.


Also see Paul's video below, The Arctic Blue-Ocean-Event (BOE). When? Then What?


Changing Winds

As global warming continues, the additional energy in the atmosphere causes stronger winds and higher waves.

As the Arctic warms up faster than the rest of the world, the jet streams are getting more out of shape, exacerbating extreme weather events.

The image on the right shows the jet stream crisscrossing the Arctic Ocean on September 10, 2018, with cyclonic wind patterns all over the place.

On the image below, Typhoon Mangkhut is forecast to cause waves as high as 21.39 m or 70.2 ft on September 14, 2018.


The inset on above image shows Typhoon Mangkhut forecast to cause winds to reach speeds as high as 329 km/h or 205 mph at 700 hPa (green circle), while Hurricane Florence is forecast to hit the coast of North Carolina, and is followed by Hurricane Isaac and Hurricane Helene in the Atlantic Ocean.


At 850 hPa, Typhoon Mangkhut reaches Instant Wind Power Density as high as 196.9 kW/m² on September 13, 2018, as illustrated by above image.

The situation is likely to get worse over the next few months, as this is only the start of the hurricane season and El Niño is strengthening, as illustrated by the image on the right.

The image below shows how the occurrence and strength of El Niño has increased over the decades.



Four Arctic Tipping Points

There are numerous feedbacks that speed up warming in the Arctic. In some cases, there are critical points beyond which huge changes will take place rather abruptly. In such cases, it makes sense to talk about tipping points.

1. The albedo tipping point

As Arctic sea ice gets thinner and thinner, a Blue Ocean Event looks more imminent every year. A Blue Ocean Event means that huge amounts of sunlight won't get reflected back into space anymore, as they previously were. Instead, the heat will have to be absorbed by the Arctic. 



At the other hemisphere, the sea ice around Antarctica is at its lowest extent for the time of the year, as illustrated by above image. Global sea ice extent is also at its lowest for the time of the year, as illustrated by the image below.

A Blue Ocean Event will not only mean that additional heat will have to be absorbed in the Arctic, but also that wind patterns will change radically and even more dramatically than they are already changing now, which will also make that other tipping points will be reached earlier. This is why a Blue Ocean Event is an important tipping point and it will likely be reached abruptly and disruptively.

2. The latent heat tipping point

Disappearance of the sea ice north of Greenland is important in this regard. The image on the right shows that most sea ice at the end of August 2018 was less than 1 meter thick.

The image below shows how the sea ice has been thinning recently north of Greenland and Ellesmere Island, an area once covered with the thickest multi-year sea ice. Disappearance of sea ice from this area indicates that we're close to or beyond the latent heat tipping point, i.e. the point where further ocean heat can no longer be consumed by the process of melting the sea ice.

[ The once-thickest sea ice has gone - click on images to enlarge ]
The amount of energy absorbed by melting ice is as much as it takes to heat an equivalent mass of water from zero to 80°C. Without sea ice, additional ocean heat will have to go somewhere else.


Above image shows how much sea surface temperatures in the Arctic have warmed, compared to 1961-1990. The image also shows the extent of the sea ice (white). In the image below, a large area has changed from sea ice to water twelve days later, showing how thin and fragile the sea ice is and how easily it can disappear as the water continues to warm.


As the Arctic is warming faster than the rest of the world, changes have been taking place to the jet streams on the Northern Hemisphere that make it easier for warm air and water to move into the Arctic. This means that warm water is increasingly entering the Arctic Ocean that can no longer be consumed by melting the sea ice from below.

Arctic sea ice extent has remained relatively large this year, since air temperatures over the Arctic Ocean have been relatively low in June and July 2018. At the same time, ocean heat keeps increasing, so a lot of heat is now accumulating underneath the surface of the Arctic Ocean.

[ click on images to enlarge ]
3. Seafloor Methane Tipping Point

As said above, Arctic sea ice has been getting thinner dramatically over the years, and we are now near or beyond the latent heat tipping point.

[ The Buffer has gone, feedback #14 on the Feedbacks page ]
This year, air temperatures over the Arctic Ocean were relatively low in June and July 2018, and this has kept Arctic sea ice extent larger than it would otherwise have been. As a result, a lot of heat has been accumulating underneath the surface of the Arctic Ocean and this heat cannot escape to the atmosphere and it can no longer be consumed by melting. Where will the heat go?

As the temperature of the Arctic Ocean keeps rising, more heat threatens to reach sediments at its seafloor that have until now remained frozen. Contained in these sediments are huge amounts of methane in the form of hydrates and free gas.

Melting of the ice in these sediments then threatens to unleash huge eruptions of seafloor methane that has been kept locked up in the permafrost for perhaps millions of years. Seafloor methane constitutes a third tipping point.

The image on the right features a trend based on WMO data. The trend shows that mean global methane levels could cross 1900 ppb in 2019.

Ominously, methane recently reached unprecedented levels. Peak levels as high as 3369 ppb on August 31, 2018, as shown by the image below on the right.

The next image on the right below shows that mean global levels were as high as 1905 ppb on September 3, 2018.

The third image below on the right may give a clue regarding the origin of these unprecedented levels.

More methane will further accelerate warming, especially in the Arctic, making that each of the tipping points will be reached earlier.

Less sea ice will on the one hand make that more heat can escape from the Arctic Ocean to the atmosphere, but on the other hand the albedo loss and the additional water vapor will at the same time cause the Arctic Ocean to absorb more heat, with the likely net effect being greater warming of the Arctic Ocean.

Additionally, more heat is radiated from sea ice into space than from open water (feedback #23).

How much warming could result from the decline of snow and ice cover in the Arctic?

As discussed, there will be albedo changes, there will be changes to the jet streams, and there will be further feedbacks, adding up to 1.6°C of additional global warming that could eventuate due to snow and ice decline and associated changes in the Arctic.

A further 1.1°C of warming or more could result from releases of seafloor methane over the next few years.

4. Terrestrial Permafrost Tipping Point

Additional warming of the Arctic will also result in further warming due to numerous feedbacks such as more water vapor getting into the atmosphere. Furthermore, more intense heatwaves can occur easier in the Arctic due to changes to jet streams. All this will further accelerate melting of the ice in lakes and in soils on land that was previously known as permafrost. This constitutes a fourth tipping point that threatens to add huge amounts of additional greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. Until now, the permafrost was held together by ice. As the ice melts, organic material in the soil and at the bottom of lakes starts to decompose. The land also becomes increasingly vulnerable to landslides, sinkholes and wildfires. All his can result in releases of CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, soot, etc., which in turn causes further warming, specifically over the Arctic.

In total, a temperature rise of 10°C threatens to occur in as little as a few years time.

The situation is dire and calls for comprehensive and effective action, as described in the Climate Plan.



Links

• Jet Stream Center-of-Rotation to Shift 17 degrees Southward from North Pole to Greenland with Arctic Blue Ocean Event
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bFme3C9e-cs

• It could be unbearably hot in many places within a few years time
https://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2016/07/it-could-be-unbearably-hot-in-many-places-within-a-few-years-time.html

• Feedbacks
https://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/feedbacks.html

• Latent Heat
https://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/latent-heat.html

• Albedo and more
https://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/albedo.html

• Warning of mass extinction of species, including humans, within one decade
https://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2017/02/warning-of-mass-extinction-of-species-including-humans-within-one-decade.html

• How much warming have humans caused?
https://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2016/05/how-much-warming-have-humans-caused.html

• The Threat
https://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/threat.html

• Extinction
https://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/extinction.html

• Climate Plan
https://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/climateplan.html






Thursday, April 13, 2017

The Methane Threat

Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere are accelerating. As illustrated by the image below, a linear trend hardly catches the acceleration, while a polynomial trend does make a better fit. The polynomial trend points at CO₂ levels of 437 ppm by 2026.


EPA animation: more extreme heat
This worrying acceleration is taking place while energy-related have been virtually flat over the past few years, according to figures by the EIA and by the Global Carbon Project. So, what makes growth in CO₂ levels in the atmosphere accelerate? As earlier discussed in this and this post, growth in CO₂ levels in the atmosphere is accelerating due to continued deforestation and soil degradation, due to ever more extreme weather events and due to accelerating warming that is making oceans unable to further take up carbon dioxide.


Ocean warming is accelerating on the Northern Hemisphere, as illustrated by above image, and a warmer Atlantic Ocean will push ever warmer water into the Arctic Ocean, further speeding up the decline of the sea ice and of permafrost.

[ click on images to enlarge ]
Loss of Northern Hemisphere snow cover is alarming, especially in July, as depicted in above image. The panel on the left shows snow cover on the Northern Hemisphere in three areas, i.e. Greenland, North America and Eurasia. The center panel shows North America and the right panel shows Eurasia. While Greenland is losing huge amounts of ice from melting glaciers, a lot of snow cover still remains present on Greenland, unlike the permafrost in North America and especially Eurasia, which has all but disappeared in July.

[ for original image, see 2011 AGU poster ]
Worryingly, the linear trend in the right panel points at zero snow cover in 2017, which should act as a warning that climate change could strike a lot faster than many may expect.

A recently-published study warns that permafrost loss is likely to be 4 million km² (about 1.5 million mi²) for each 1°C (1.8°F) temperature rise, about 20% higher than previous studies. Temperatures may well rise even faster, due to numerous self-reinforcing feedback loops that speed up the changes and due to interaction between the individual warming elements behind the changes.

[ Arctic sea ice, gone by Sept. 2017? ]
One of the feedbacks is albedo loss that speeds up warming in the Arctic, in turn making permafrost release greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane.

Higher temperatures on land will make warmer water from rivers enter the Arctic Ocean and trigger wildfires resulting in huge emissions including black carbon that can settle on sea ice.

Given the speed at which many feedbacks and the interaction between warming elements can occur, Arctic sea ice volume may decline even more rapidly than the image on the right may suggest.
[ Record sea ice volume anomalies since end 2016 ]

Ominously, sea ice volume anomalies have been at record levels for time of year since end 2016 (Wipneus graph right, PIOMAS data).

As the Gulf Stream pushes warmer water into the Arctic Ocean, there will no longer be a large buffer of sea ice there to consume the heat, as was common for the entire human history.

Moreover, forecasts are that temperatures will keep rising throughout 2017 and beyond.
The Australian Bureau of Meteorology reports that seven of eight models indicate that sea surface temperatures will exceed El Niño thresholds during the second half of 2017.

The image on the right, by the ECMWF (European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts), indicates an El Niño that is gaining strength.

For more than half a year now, global sea ice extent has been way below what it used to be, meaning that a huge amount of sunlight that was previously reflected back into space, is now instead getting absorbed by Earth, as the graph below shows.
[ Graph by Wipneus ]
Where can all this extra heat go? Sea ice will start sealing off much of the surface of the Arctic Ocean by the end of September 2017, making it hard for more heat to escape from the Arctic Ocean by entering the atmosphere.

The Buffer has gone, feedback #14 on the Feedbacks page
It looks like much of the extra heat will instead reach sediments at the seafloor of the Arctic Ocean that contain huge amounts of methane in currently still frozen hydrates.

[ click on image to enlarge ]
The danger is that more and more heat will reach the seafloor and will destabilize methane hydrates contained in sediments at the bottom of the Arctic Ocean, resulting in huge methane eruptions.

As the image on the right shows, a polynomial trend based on NOAA July 1983 to January 2017 global monthly mean methane data, points at twice as much methane by 2034. Stronger methane releases from the seafloor could make such a doubling occur much earlier.

Meanwhile, methane levels as high as 2592 ppb were recorded on April 17, 2017, as shown by the image below. The image doesn't specify the source of the high reading, but the magenta-colored area over the East Siberian Sea (top right) looks very threatening.


We already are in the Sixth Mass Extinction Event, given the rate at which species are currently disappearing from Earth. When taking into account the many elements that are contributing to warming, a potential warming of 10°C (18°F) could take place, leading to a rapid mass extinction of many species, including humans.

[ Graph from: Which Trend is Best? ]
How long could it take for such warming to eventuate? As above image illustrates, it could happen as fast as within the next four years time.

The situation is dire and calls for comprehensive and effective action, as described at the Climate Plan.


Links

• Climate Plan
https://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/climateplan.html

• Extinction
https://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/extinction.html

• How much warming have humans caused?
https://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2016/05/how-much-warming-have-humans-caused.html

• Accelerating growth in CO₂ levels in the atmosphere
https://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2017/02/accelerating-growth-in-co2-levels-in-the-atmosphere.html

• An observation-based constraint on permafrost loss as a function of global warming, by Chadburn et al. (2017)
http://www.nature.com/nclimate/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nclimate3262.html

• Reduction of forest soil respiration in response to nitrogen deposition, by Janssens et al. (2010)
http://www.nature.com/ngeo/journal/v3/n5/full/ngeo844.html

• Methane Erupting From Arctic Ocean Seafloor
https://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2017/03/methane-erupting-from-arctic-ocean-seafloor.html

• Warning of mass extinction of species, including humans, within one decade
https://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2017/02/warning-of-mass-extinction-of-species-including-humans-within-one-decade.html


Monday, May 25, 2015

Sleeping Giant in the Arctic



Huge amounts of carbon are contained in sediments, soils and vegetation in the Arctic. Rising temperatures in the Arctic threaten to cause much of this carbon to be released to the atmosphere.

On May 23, 2015, temperatures in Alaska were as high as 91°F (32.78°C), as illustrated by the image below.

[ image credit: US National Weather Service Alaska ]
High temperatures were reached at the city of Eagle, located on the southern bank of the Yukon River, at an elevation of 853 ft (260 m). High temperatures at such a location will cause meltwater, aggravating the situation well beyond the local area.
A bank of permafrost thaws near the Kolyma
River in Siberia. Credit: University of Georgia

Carbon contained in soils will thus become increasingly exposed under the combined impact of rising temperatures and the associated growing amounts of meltwater. The meltwater can additionally cause erosion further downstream, thus making carbon at many locations become more prone to be consumed by microbes and released into the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide and methane.

A recent study found that, at a location where the Kolyma river in Siberia carved into the permafrost and exposed the carbon, microbes converted 60% of the carbon into carbon dioxide in two weeks time.

Gary Houser, who recently launched the movie Sleeping Giant in the Arctic, elaborates on the threat of emissions from thawing permafrost:
This immense release would likely feed on itself, raising temperatures that continue melting more and more permafrost in a vicious, frightening, and unstoppable cycle. A tipping point could well be crossed, at which time human intervention is no longer possible. Temperatures across the planet could soar, setting in motion catastrophic levels of drought and food shortage. All life support systems on earth and life forms themselves could be placed under severe stress.

The colossal scale of the danger - and the observation of those factors lining up that could trigger it - demand that humanity exercise the precautionary principle. All political decision-making related to carbon emissions must be based on the understanding that a catastrophic consequence is looming, and the window of time for prevention quickly diminishing.
SLEEPING GIANT IN THE ARCTIC:
Can Thawing Permafrost Cause Runaway Global Heating?
by Gary Houser



Sources: 

US National Weather Service Alaska

University of Georgia

Sleeping Giant in the Arctic


Sleeping Giant in the Arctic http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2015/05/sleeping-giant-in-the-arctic.html

Posted by Sam Carana on Monday, May 25, 2015

Friday, April 10, 2015

North Siberian Arctic Permafrost Methane Eruption Vents

Mantle Methane Leakage via Late Permian Deep Penetrating Fault and Shear Fracture Systems Rejuvenated by Carbon Dioxide and Methane Induced Global Warming

By Malcolm P.R. Light, Harold H. Hensel and Sam Carana

Abstract

In North Siberia some 30 permafrost methane eruption vents occur along the trend of the inner (continental side) third of the Late Permian Taimyr Volcanic Arc where the crust and mantle were the weakest and the most fractured. Deep penetrating faults and shear systems allowed molten basaltic magmas charged with large volumes of carbon dioxide and methane free access to the surface where they formed giant pyroclastic eruptions. The large volume of carbon dioxide and methane added to the atmosphere by this Late Permian volcanic activity led to a massive atmospheric temperature pulse that caused a major worldwide extinction event (Wignall, 2009). These deep penetrating fractures form a major migration conduit system for the presently erupting methane vents in the North Siberian permafrost and the submarine Enrico PV Anomaly. During periods of lower atmospheric carbon dioxide and lower temperatures, the permafrost methane vents became sealed by the formation of methane hydrate (clathrate) plugs forming pingos. The surface methane clathrate plugs are now being destabilized by human pollution induced global warming and the mantle methane released into the atmosphere at the permafrost methane explosion vents. This has opened a giant, long standing (Permian to Recent) geopressured, mantle methane pressure-release safety valve. There is now no fast way to reseal this system because it will require extremely quick cooling of the atmosphere and the Arctic Ocean. The situation calls for comprehensive and effective action, including breaking down the methane in the water before it gets into the atmosphere using methane devouring symbiotic bacteria (Glass et al. 2013) and simultaneously breaking down the existing atmospheric methane using radio-laser systems which can also form methane consuming hydroxyl molecules (Alamo and Lucy Projects, Light and Carana, 2012, 2013).


Permafrost Methane Eruption Vents

During 2014 and 2015 at least 30 methane eruption vents, 7 of which are very large were identified in northern Siberia in the permafrost (Figures 1 to 3)(Zulinova in Liesowska 2015, Wales, 2015, Wignall 2009, Light 2014, Scribbler R., 2015). Of the seven major methane eruption vents (craters) in the Arctic area, 5 are on the Yamal Peninsula, one is in the Yamal Autonomous District and the seventh near Krasnoyarsk close to the Taimyr Peninsula (Figure 3, Liesowska, 2015). This permafrost methane eruption vent zone correlates with the inner third of the continental side of the Late Permian Age Taimyr Volcanic Arc where the top of the underlying Permian subduction zone lay at a depth between 200 km and 225 km (Figure 3, Light 2014). These methane eruption vents occur along fracture systems, transform faults, strike slip-slip faults oblique to the subduction direction and normal fault lines that also cut the Permian volcanic arc and the permafrost up to the continental edge of the arc (Figure 3).


Late Permian Extinction Event

In the Late Permian a massive eruption phase occured along the entire central and north eastern part of the "Taimyr Volcanic Arc" producing an extremely wide and thick sheet-like succession of flood trap lavas and tuffs (Siberian Traps Large Igneous Province) that spread south eastwards over the Siberian Craton (Figure 2, Light 2014). During the Late Permian there was a major global extinction event which resulted in a large loss of species caused by catastrophic methane eruptions from destabilization of subsea methane hydrates in the Paleo-Arctic (Figures 2, 3 and 4)(Wignall 2009, Light 2014, Scribbler 2015, Merali 2004, Goho 2004, Scott et al, PNAS, Dawson 1967, Kennedy and Kennedy, 1976). Extreme global warming was caused when vast volumes of carbon dioxide were released into the atmosphere from the widespread eruption of volcanics in northern Siberia (Figure 2; Wignall 2009) whose main source zone, the "Taimyr Volcanic Arc" on land in northern Siberia (Figure 3) is not a great distance from the present trend of the Arctic Ocean Gakkel Ridge and the Enrico Pv Anomaly extreme methane emission zone. Because the Arctic forms a graveyard for subducted plates, the mantle there is highly fractured and it is also a primary source zone for mantle methane formed from the reduction of oceanic carbonates by water in the presence of iron (II) oxides buried to depths of 100 km to 300 km in the Asthenosphere and at temperatures above 1200°C (Figure 4)(Gaina et al. 2013; Goho 2004; Merali 2004; Light 2014).

In addition to the widespread eruption of volcanics in Northern Siberia in the Late Permian (250 million years ago), swarms of pyroclastic kimberlites also erupted between 245 and 228 million years ago along a NNE trending shear system in the mantle which extends up the east flank of the Lena River delta and intersects the Gakkel Ridge slow spreading ridge on the East Siberian Arctic Shelf (Figure 4). Cenozoic volcanics also occur to the north and north east of the Lena River delta marking the trend of the slow spreading Gakkel Ridge on the East Siberian Arctic Shelf (Sekretov 1998). All this pyroclastic activity along the slow spreading Gakkel Ridge from the Late Permian to the present is evidence of deep pervasive vertical mantle fracturing and shearing which has formed conduits for the release of carbon dioxide and deeply sourced mantle methane out of Siberia and the Arctic sea floor into the atmosphere (Light 2014).

Thermodynamic Conditions Necessary to form Mantle Methane

On a vertical temperature - pressure/ depth cross section (Figure 4) the surface methane eruption vents are fed from vertical crustal and mantle fractures from more deeply sourced mantle methane below 225 km depth that has migrated up the fractured and sheared surface of the Late Permian subducting oceanic plate and then entered the vertical fractures allowing it to the surface where the methane is now erupting along the inner (continental side) third of the "Taimyr Volcanic Arc" (Dawson, 1967, Kennedy and Kennedy 1976. Merali 2004, Goho 2004, Scott et al, PNAS, Light 2014). What is remarkable is that the present surface methane eruption vent region corresponds exactly to the zone where the crust and mantle was the weakest in the Late Permian because the continental rock melt line (dry solidus) rises steeply to within a few km of the surface peaking exactly in the centre of zone defined by the methane eruption vents (Figure 4).

This implies that in the Late Permian, the inner continental side of the volcanic arc was a region of intense pyroclastic volcanic activity because the lavas were highly charged in carbon dioxide and methane. The eruption of these gases led to massive peak in global warming that culminated in the Major Late Permian Extinction Event when mean global atmospheric temperatures exceeded 26.6°C (Wignall. 2009).

This inner (continental side) third of the "Taimyr Volcanic Arc" was thus severly fractured by extreme pyroclastic volcanic activity and gas effusions in the Late Permian and has remained so up to the present day thus forming a major migration conduit system for the presently erupting methane vents in the Siberian permafrost. During periods of lower atmospheric carbon dioxide and lower temperatures the permafrost methane vents became sealed by the formation of methane hydrate (clathrate) plugs forming pingos (Figures 5, 6 and 7; Hovland et al. 2006; Paull et al., 2007; Carana, 2011, Liesowska, 2015). The surface methane clathrate plugs have now been destabilized by human pollution induced global warming and the methane is being released into the atmosphere at the permafrost methane explosion vents. Extreme methane concentrations, up to 1000 times above the mean atmospheric level has been found at the base of the methane eruption vents by Russian scientists (Holthaus, 2015) confirming that they are still linked to deeper methane sources which may be geopressujred. Before the Yamal B1 methane eruption vent developed, hillocks (pingoes) rose in the permafrost heralding the coming massive methane gas eruption (Figure 7; Liesowska, 2015). Other pingoes adjacent to the Yamal B1 methane eruption vent could also collapse at any moment emitting a large cloud of methane gas (Liesowska, 2015).
In the Last Ice age, the methane seal system (methane hydrate pingos) was maintained by the low temperatures and trapped the mantle methane below the ground. Now however human pollution which caused a massive carbon dioxide atmospheric buildup exceeding 400 ppm has started to break the seals on the mantle methane fractures in 2014 and 2015 allowing them to spew increasingly large quantities of deep mantle methane directly into the Arctic atmosphere. In the Late Permian, the massive volume of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere during these cataclysmic eruptions produced extreme global warming in the air and oceans which also dissasocciated the Paleo-Arctic permafrost and subsea methane hydrates and the methane hydrate seals above the Enrico Pv Anomaly generating a massive seafloor and mantle methane pulse into the atmosphere that caused the Major Late Permian Extinction Event (Figures 2 to 4) (Wignall. 2009).

A sequence of extreme pyroclastic basaltic eruptions occur along the Gakkel Ridge (85oE volcanoes) which has an ultra - slow rate of plate spreading of 15 to 20 mm a year (Sohn et al. 2007). These volcanoes formed from the explosive eruption of gas - rich basaltic magmatic foams as shown by recovered green - glass fragments and pillow lavas. Long intervals between eruptions during slow spreading produced a huge gas and volatile buildup at high storage pressures deep down in the crust (Sohn et al 2007). A volatile and carbon dioxide content of some 13.5% to 14% (Wt./Wt. - volume fraction 75%) is necessary at 5 km depth in the Arctic Ocean to fragment the erupting magma (Sohn et al. 2007). These extreme pyroclastic basaltic volcanic eruptions are probably a modern day equivalent of the types of eruptions that occured in the region of methane eruption vents along the "Taimyr Volcanic Arc" in the Late Permian and totally fractured the mantle and crust producing deep reaching conduits that allowed mantle methane below 225 km access to the surface (Figure 4). The more fluid Gakkel Ridge pillow lava basalts mirror the very fluid Siberian "Trapp" flows that covered a large part of Siberia in the Late Permian (Figure 2 and 3).

Conclusions

Our present extreme fossil fuel driven, carbon dioxide global warming is predicted to produce exactly the same mantle methane release from the permafrost methane eruption vents along the Late Permian "TaimyrVolcanic Arc", subsea Arctic methane hydrates and the Enrico Pv Anomaly "Extreme Methane Emission Zone" by the 2050's, leading to total deglaciation and the extinction of all life on Earth.

Mankind has, in his infinite stupidity, with his extreme hydrocarbon addiction and fossil fuel induced global warming, opened a giant, long standing (Permian to Recent), geopressured, mantle methane pressure-release safety valve for methane gas generated between 100 km and 300 km depth and at temperatures of above 1200°C in the asthenosphere (Figures 1 to 6). This is now a region of massive methane emissions (Carana, 2011-2015).

There seems to be no fast and easy way to reseal this system. To sufficiently cool the Atmosphere and Arctic Ocean cannot be achieved in the short time frame we have left to complete the job. In some cases, it may be possible to reseal conduits with concrete or other material, or to capture methane for storage in hydrates at safer locations, but the sheer number of vulnerable locations and the size of the work involved is daunting.

Figure 9. Climate Action Plan, from Climate Plan
Other ways to deal with the methane are to break it down in the water and in the atmosphere, as also depicted in Figure 9 (enhanced decomposition). Efforts to break down methane in the atmosphere using radio-laser systems have been described by Light and Carana (Figure 8, Alamo and Lucy Projects, Light and Carana, 2012, 2013, Ehret 2012; Sternowski 2012; Iopscience, 2013, Arctic-news, 2012). Scientists at Georgia Tech. University have found in the ocean that at very low temperatures two symbiotic methane eating organisms group together, consume methane in the presence of tungsten and excrete carbon dioxide which then reacts with minerals in the water to form carbonate mounds (Glass et al. 2013). This means that the United States must fund a major project at Georgia Tech. to quickly develop the means to grow these methane consuming bacteria in massive quantities with their tungsten enzyme and find the means to deliver them to the Polar oceans as soon as possible. More generally, the situation calls for comprehensive and effective action, as discussed at the Climate Plan blog.


References

Aagaard K., Foldvik A., Hillman S.R., 1987. The West Spitsbergen Current: Disposition and Water Mass Transformation. Journal of Geophysical Research 92:3778 ACS 2013. Thermal Energy in the Ocean. ACS Climate Science toolkit/Oceans, Ice and Rocks. http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/climatescience/oceanicerocks/thermalenergy.html

Allen P.A., and Allen J.R. 1990. Basin Analysis, Principles and Applications. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. 451 pp.

Anderson D.L., 1989. Theory of the Earth. Blackwell Scientific Publications. Boston 1-366 pp.

Anderson D.L., Minster B.J., and Cole D., 1974. The Effect of Oriented Cracks on Seismic Velocities. J. Geophys. Res. 79, 4011 - 4015.

Anderson D.L. and Whitcomb J. 1973. The dilatancy - diffusion model of earthquake prediction. In: Proceedings of the Conference on Tectonic Problems of the San Andreas Fault System.(A.M. Nur. ed.) 417 - 426. Stanford U. Publ. Geol. Sci. 13.

Anitei S. 2007. How is the Ozone layer menaced? The Daily Climate and Softpedia.
http://www.DailyClimate.org
http://news.softpedia.com/news/How-is-the-Ozone-Layer-Menaced-53762.shtml

Arctic Methane Emergency group (AMEG)
http://ameg.me

Baile L. W. and Braille S.W. 2002. Journey to the Centre of the Earth.
http://web.ics.purdu.ed/~braile/edumod/journey/journey.htm

Baker J.A., MacPherson C.G., Menzies M.A., Thirwall M.F., Al-Kadasi M., Mattey D.P., 1999. Resolving Crustal and Mantle Contributions to Continental Flood Volcanics in Yemen. Constraints from Mineral Oxygen Isotope Data. Jour. of Petrology, Vol 41, Issue 12, pp. 1805 - 1820

Balmaseda M.A., Trenberth K.E., Källén E., 2013. Distinctive climate signals in reanalysis of global ocean heat content. Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 40, Issue 9, 1754 - 1759.

Bourke R.H., Wiegel A.M. and Paquette R.G. 1988. The westward turning branch of the West Spitsbergen Current. Jounal of Geophysical Research 93: 14065 - 14077

Box J. and Decker D. 2012. Greenland Ice Sheet Reflectivity , July 2000 – 2011, 2012 days 1 – 23. NASA MOD1OA1 data processed by Jason Bird and David Decker. Byrd Polar Research Centre.

Boyd T.J. D'asaro E.A., 1994. Cooling the West Spitsbergen Current: Wintertime Observations West of Svalbard. Journal of Geophysical Research 99:22587

Bryden, H.L., 1979. Poleward heat flux and conversion of available potential energy in
Drake Passage. J. Marine Res., 37, 1 - 22.

Bunker A.F. 1976. Computations of Surface Energy Flux and Annual Air-Sea Interaction Cycles of the North Atlantic Ocean. Mon. Wea. Rev. 104, 1122 - 1139.

Bunker A.F. 1988. Surface Energy Fluxes in the South Atlantic Ocean. Mon. Wea. Rev. 116, 809 - 829.

Bunker A.F., and Worthington V., 1976. Energy Exchange Charts of the North Atlantic Ocean. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc. 57, 670 - 678.

Cactus 2000; Wavelength. Unit Converters.
http://www.cactus2000.de/uk/unit/massway.shtml

Calder, N. 1984. Timescale - An Atlas of the Fourth Dimension. Chatto and Windus, London, 288 pp.

Carana, S. 2011. Potential for Methane Release.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/potential-for-methane-release

Carana, S. 2011a. Runaway Warming 2011. Geo-engineering blog.
http://geo-engineering.blogspot.com/2011/09/runaway-warming.html

Carana S., 2011b. Runaway global warming, 2011. Geo-engineering blog.
http://geo-engineering.blogspot.com/2011/04/runaway-global-warming.html

Carana, S. 2012a. Striking increase of methane in the Arctic. In: Arctic News.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2012/05/striking-increase-of-methane-in-arctic.html

Carana S., 2012b. Record levels of greenhouse gases in the Arctic. Arctic News.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2012/05/record-levels-of-greenhouse-gases-in.html

Carana S., 2012c. Greenland is melting at incredible rate. Arctic News.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2012/07/greenland-is-melting-at-incredible-rate.html

Carana S., 2012d. Getting the picture. Arctic News.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2012/08/getting-the-picture.html

Carana, S. 2012e. Oxygenating the Arctic
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/oxygenating-arctic.html

Carana S., 2012f. The accumulating impact of methane releases in the Arctic and how much time there is left to act.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/how-much-time-is-there-left-to-act.html

Carana S., 2012g. How much time is there left to act? Abrupt release of 1 Gt of methane.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/how-much-time-is-there-left-to-act.html

Carana S., 2012h. Potential for Methane Release.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/potential-for-methane-release.html

Carana, S. 2012i. Runaway Warming. In: Arctic News
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/runaway-warming.html

Carana S., 2013a. Quantifying Arctic Methane.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2013/11/quantifying-arctic-methane.html

Carana S., 2013b. Methane - hydrates.
http://methane-hydrates.blogspot.com/2013/04/methane-hydrates.html

Carana S., 2013c. Methane up to 2241 ppb at 742 mb on January 23, 2013. In: Carana S., 2013, Dramatic increase in methane in the Arctic in January 2013.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2013/02/dramatic-increase-in-methane-in-the-arctic-in-january-2013.html

Carana S., 2013d. Global warming, accelerated warming in the Arctic and runaway global warming. - How much will temperatures rise?.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2013/04/how-much-will-temperatures-rise.html

Carana S., 2013e. Methane levels going through the roof.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/methane-levels-going-through-the-roof.html

Carana S., 2013f. Dramatic increase in methane in the Arctic in January 2013.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/dramatic-increase-in-methane-in-the-arctic-in-january-2013.html

Carana, S. 2013g Climate Action Plan, part of the Climate Plan
http://climateplan.blogspot.com/p/action.html

Carana S., 2014. Massive methane concentrations over the Laptev Sea.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/massive-methane-concentrations-over-the-laptev-sea.html

Carana, S. 2015 Methane Levels Early 2015
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2015/03/methane-levels-early-2015.html

CDL, 2013. The Oceans, their Physics, Chemistry and General Biology. UC Press E-Books Collection, 1982 - 2004. University of California Press. California Digital Library (CDL).
http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=kt167nb66r&chunk.id=d3_5_ch15&toc.id=ch15&toc.depth=1&brand=eschol

Chao, B.F., Yu, Y.H., Li, Y.S., 2008. Impact of Artificial Reservoir Water Impoundment on Global Sea Level. Science, v. 320, p. 212 – 214.
http://www.skepticalscience.com/sea-level-rise.htm

Chapelle F.H.; O'Neill K., Bradley P.M., Methe B.A., Clufo S.A., Knobell L.L. and Lovely D.R. 2002. A hydrogen - based subsurface microbial community dominated by methanogens. Nature 415 (6869): 312 - 315. Bibcode: 2002. Nature 415. 312C.doi: 10.1038/415312a. PMID11797006.

Church J.A., White N.J., Konikow L.F., Domingues C.M., Cogley G., Rignot E., Gregory J.M., van den Broeke M.R., Monagham A.J., Velicogna I., 2011. Revisiting the Earth's sea - level and energy budgets from 1961 to 2008. Geophysical Research Letters. Vol. 40, Issue 15, 4066. Article first published online 8 Aug. 2013.

Church J.A., White N.J., Thorkild A., Wilson W.S., Woodworth, P.L. Domingues C.M., Hunter J.R., Lambeck K., 2008. Understanding global sea levels: past, present and future. Special Feature. Original Article. Sustain Sci. V.3, pp. 9 - 22.
http://academics.eckerd.edu/instructor/hastindw/MS1410_001_FA08/handouts/2008SLRSustain.pdf

Coachman L.K. and Barnes C.A., 1963. The movement of the Atlantic water in the Arctic Ocean. Arctic, 16(1); 9 - 16. Collett, T.S., 1995. Gas Hydrate Resources of the United States. In Gautier D.L. et al. eds. National assessment of United States oil and gas resources on CD-ROM. U.S. Geological Survey Digital Data Series 30.

Columbia, 2013. Subduction zones.
http://www.columbia.edu/~vjdi/subd_zone_basic.htm

Extent of the Siberian Trapps-ru.svg Kaidor - собственная работа based on File:Extent of Siberian traps german.png and File:Russland Relief.png
http://Commons.wikimedia.org (2015).

Connor, S. 2011. Shock as retreat of Arctic sea ice releases deadly greenhouse gas. Russian research team astonished after finding fountains of methane bubbling to surface. The Independent.
http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/shock-as-retreat-of-arctic-sea-ice-releases-deadly-greenhouse-gas-6276134.html

Cook J. 2013. 4 Hiroshima bombs worth of heat per second. In: Skeptical Science.
http://www.skepticalscience.com/4-Hiroshima-bombs-worth-of-heat-per-second.html

CPOM, 2014. Cryosat finds sharp increase in Antarctica,s ice losses.
http://www.esa.int/Our-Activities/Observing_the_Earth/Cryosat/

Cryosat_finds_sharp_increase_in_Antarctica_s_ice_losses Csanady G.T., 2001. Air - Sea Interactions. Laws and Mechanisms. Cambridge University Press. 239 pp. DATAWeb, 2011. Combined Data Earth Policy Institute.
http://www.earth-policy.org/datacenter/.../update29_5x
http://www.earth-policy.org/datacenter/.../update20_3x

Dawson J.B. 1967. A review of the geology of kimberlite. In: Ultramafic and Related Rocks (Wyllie P.J., ed). Wiley, New York. 269 - 278

Diamond Stability Zone in the Earth. P-T Diagram.
http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/30/10/947/F3expansion.html

Dessus, B., and Laponche B., Herve le Treut, 2008. Global Warming: The Significance of Methane bd-bl-hlt January 2008.
http://www.global-chance.org/IMG/pdf/CH4march2008.pdf

Dmitrenko I.A., Polyakov I.V., Kirilov S.G., Timokhov L.A., Frolov I.E., Sokolov V.T., Simmons H.L., Ivanov V.V., et al. 2006. Toward a warmer Arctic Ocean: Spreading of the early 21st Atlantic Water warm anomaly along the Eurasian Basin margins. Journal of Geophysical Research 113: C05023

Dziewonski A.M., and Anderson D.L., 1981. Preliminary Reference Earth Model. Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 25, 297 - 356

Edwards, M. H., Kurras, G. J., Toltsoy, M., Bohnenstiehl, D. R., Coakley, B. J., Cochran, J. R., 2001. Evidence of recent volcanic activity on the ultraslow – spreading Gakkel ridge. Letters to nature. Nature 409. no.6822, 808 – 812.
http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano/cfm?vnum=1707-02-&volpage=var

Ehret G. 2010. Merlin: French – German Climate Satellite to be launched in 2014. Lidar Department, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Deutches Zentrum für Luft – und Raumfahrt (DLR)
http://www.dlr.ge/pa/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-2342/6725_read-26662/

Engineering Toolbox, 2011. Gases – Specific Gravities.
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/specific-gravities-gases-d_334.html

Fahrbach E., Meincke J., Osterhus S., Rohardt G., Schauer U., Tverberg V., Verduin J., 2001. Direct measurements of volume transports through Fram Strait. Polar Research 20(2), 217

Galt J.A. 1967. Current Measurements in the Canadian Basin of the Arctic Ocean, Summer, 1965. Technical Report No.184. Arctic Institute of North America. Office of Naval Research.
https://dlib.lib.washington.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/1773/16076/M67-15.pdf?sequence=1

Gapminder, 2012. Yearly Human Carbon Dioxide Emissions
http://www.gapminder.org/world

Gaina C., Medvedev S., Torsvik T.H., Koulakov I., Werner S.C., 2013. 4D Arctic: A Glimpse into the Structure and Evolution of the Arctic. In the light of New Geophysical Maps, Plate Tectonics and Tomographic Models. Surv. Geophys. DOI.10.1007/s10712-013-9254-y.
http://earthdynamics.org/papers-ED/2013/2013-Gaina-etal-SurvGeophys.pdf

GEBCO (1979) and IBCAO (2000). Oblique view of the continental shelves of the Eastern Siberian and Laptev Seas.
http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov

Glasby G.P. 2006. Abiogenic origin of hydrocarbons: an historical review. PDF. Reservoir Geol. 56(1) 88 - 96.

Glass J.B. et al. 2013. Geochemical, metagenomic and metaproteomic insights into trace metal utilization by methane - oxidizing microbial consortia in sulfidic marine sediments. Environmental Microbiology 2013.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1162-2920.12314/abstract

Glass J.B. et al. 2013. Geochemical, metagenomic and metaproteomic insights into trace metal utilization by methane - oxidizing microbial consortia in sulfidic marine sediments. Environmental Microbiology 2013. In: Methane-Eating Microbes Need Trace Metal,
http://geo-engineering.blogspot.com/2013/12/methane-eating-microbes-need-trace-metal.html

Goho A., 2004. Deep Squeeze: Experiments Point to Methane in the Earth's Mantle. Science News.
https://www.sciencenews.org/article/deep-squeeze-experiments-point-methane-earths-mantle

Gusev E.A. 2013. The Structure of Gakkel Mid - Ocean Ridge and Laptev Sea Continental Margin Junction.
http://www.evgengusev.narod.ru/gakkel.html

Häkkinen S., and Cavalieri D.J., 1989. A study of oceanic surface heat fluxes in the Greenland, Norwegian and Barents Seas. J. Geophys. Res. 94, 6145 - 6157.

Halbouty M. 2001. Giant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade (1990 - 1999). An Introduction:
http://www.searchanddiscovery.com/documents/halbouty03/index.htm

Hansen, J. E. 2011. GISS Surface Temperature Analysis. NASA. Goddard Institute for Space Physics.
http://data.giss.nasa.gov/cgibin/gistemp/do_nmap.py?year_last=2011&month_last=08&sat=4&sst=1&type=anoms&mean_gen=02&year1=2009&year2=2009&base1=1951&base2=1980&radius=1200&pol=pol

Hargraves, 2012. Altitudes of World Cities. Hargraves Advanced Fluidic Solutions.
http://www.hargravesfluidics.com

Harrison, J.C., St-Onge, M.R., Petrov, O., Streinikov, S., Lopatin, B., Wilson, F., Tella, S., Paul, D., Lynds, T., Shokalsky, S., Hults, C., Bergman, S., Jepsen, H. F. and Solli, A., 2008. Geological Map of the Arctic, Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 5816, Scale 1:1000,000. 5 Sheets. Arctic Map on Adobe Illustrator:
http://gscof-5816-e-2008-mn01.pdf

Haugan P. M., 1999. Structure and heat content of the West Spitzbergen Current. Polar Research 18 (2), 183

Heiklen, J. 1976. Atmospheric Chemistry. Academic Press, New York, 406 pp.

Hensel H. pers. com. 2014. Methane Ranges, 26th January, 2014. US Geological Survey, Google Earth.

Hensel H., 2014. Methane Rising Through Fractures.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2014/07/methane-rising-through-fractures.html

Hillen, M.H., Jonkman, S.N., Kanning, W., Kok, M., Geldenhuys M., Vrijling J.K. and Stive, M.J.F., 2010. Coastal Defence Cost Estimates Case Study of the Netherlands, New Orleans and Vietnam. The Netherlands, TU Delft. Available from:
http://tiny.cc/wikh
http://repository.tudelft.nl/view/ir/uuid%3A604825d4-f218-40fc-b3b5-5f4280b2338d/

Holthaus E., 2015. Siberia's Permafrost is Exploding. Is Alaska's Next? Future Tense. The Citizens Guide to the Future.
http://www.slate.com/blogs.future_tense/2015/04/02/exploding_methane_holes_in_siberia_linked_to_climate_change April 2, 2015 2:53 pm

Höök M., Bardi U., Feng L., Pank X., 2010. Development of oil formation theories and their importance for peak oil. Marine and Petroleum Geology. Volume 27. Issue 9, October 2010, P. 1995 - 2004.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264817210001224
http://www.tsi.u.u.se/uhdsg/Publications/Abiotic_article.pdf

Hovland el al. 2006. Submarine pingoes: Indicators of shallow gas hydrates in a pock - mark at Nyegga, Norwegian Sea. Marine Geology, 228, 15 -23.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0025322705003968

Huebner W.F. (Ed) 1990. Physics and Chemistry of Comets. Springer - Verlag. ISBN978-0-387-51228-0

Hutchinson J., 2014. Bond Energies in Polyatomic Molecules. General Chemistry.
http://www.vias.org/geochem/energetics_12592_05.html

Hyperphysics, 2013. Heat of Fusion, Heat of Vaporization.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.ed/hbase/thermo/phase2.html

Illingworth V. and Cullerne, J., 2000. The Penguin Dictionary of Physics, 3rd Edition. Market House Books Ltd. Clays Ltd. St Ives, 492 pp.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 1992a. Climate Change. The IPCC Scientific Assessment (Edited by J. J. Houghton, G. J. Jenkins and J. J. Ephraums). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. U.K.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 1992b. Climate Change in 1992. The Supplementary report to the IPCC Scientific Assessment (Edited by J. J. Houghton, B. A. Callander and S. K. Varney). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. U.K.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007a. Fourth Assessment Report on Climate Change 2007. FAO 3.1, Figure 1, WG1, Chapter 3, p. 253.
http://blogs.ei.colombia.edu/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/graph-2-600X422.jpg
http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter3.pdf

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007b. Synthesis Report
http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spms1.html

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007b. Fourth Assessment report on Climate Change 2007 - temperature rise projections.
http://ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/spmsspm-projections-of.html

IPCC Fourth Assessment Report on Climate Change 2007 - temperature rise projections
http://ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/spmsspm-projections-of.html

Ivanov A.V., Demonterova, E.I., Rasskazov S.V., Yasnygina T.A. 2008. Low Ti melts from the South Eastern Siberian Traps - Large Igneous Province: Evidence for a Water - Rich Mantle Source?

J. Earth Syst. Sci. 117, No.1, pp. 1 - 21.
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12040-008-0008-z
http://www.ias.ac.in/jessci/feb2008/doo47.pdf

Kennet, J.P., Cannariato, K.G., Hendy, I.L., Behl, R.J., 2003. Methane Hydrates in Quaternary Climate Change. The Clathrate Gun Hypothesis, Washington D.C., American Geophysical Union. ISBN 0875902960

Kenney J.K., Kutcherov V., Bendeliani N., and Alekseev V. 2002. The evolution of multicomponent systems at high pressure: VI. The thermodynamic stability of the hydrogen - carbon system. The genesis of hydrocarbons and the origin of petroleum. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 99(17): 10976 - 10981.

Kestin J. et al. 1984. J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 13, 229.

Khain V.E., Geology of Northern Eurasia (Ex - USSR), 1994. Second part of the Geology of the USSR. Phanerozoic fold belts and young platform. Gebrüder Born Traeger. Berlin 404 pp.

Kholodov , A.I., Romanovskii N.K., Gavrilov A.V., Tipenko, G.S., Drachev S.S.,

Hubberten H.W., Kassens H., 1999. Modeling of the Offshore Permafrost Thickness on the Laptev Sea Shelf. Polarforschung 69, 221 - 227.

Krümmel D.O., 1891. Die Nordatlantische Sargasso Sea. Map. Scale 1:31300.000. Gotha: Justus Perthes.
http://www.gc.noaa.gov/images/gcil/1891_SargassoSee_Krummel_Petermanns_lores.jpg

Krupke W.W., 1986. Characteristics of Laser Sources. In: Handbook of Laser Science and Technology. Vol 1, Weber, M.J. Ed. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. In:

Lide R., and Frederickse H.P.R., 1995. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 75th Edition. 1-1 to 1-33.

Kvenvolden, K.A., 1988. Methane hydrate - a major reservoir of carbon in the shallow geosphere? - Chemical Geology, v. 71, pp. 41 -51.

Kvenvolden, K.A., 1988. Estimates of the methane content of world-wide gas-hydrate deposits - Methane resources in the Next Future? Panel Discussion. INOC-TRC, Japan, p. 1 - 8.

Kvenvolden, K.A., 1988. A primer on the geological occurence of gas hydrate. In: Henriet, J.P., and J Mienert (Eds.) Gas hydrates, relevance to world margin stability and climate change. Geological Society london. Spec. Pubs. 137, 9 - 30.

Kvenvolden, K.A., and Claypool, G.E., 1988. Gas hydrates in the oceanic sediment. In: U.S. Geol.Surv. Open - file Rep. No. 88 - 216, 50 pp.

Kvenvolden, K.A., Frank, T.J., Golan - Bac, M., 1990. Hydrocarbon gases in Tertiary and Quaternary sediments offshore Peru - results and comparisons. In: Proc. ODP: Sci. Results, 112, E. Suess and R. von Huene (Eds.). Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, Tx, pp. 505 - 516.

Kvenvolden, K.A., and Grantz, A., 1990. Gas hydrates of the Arctic Ocean region. In: The Geology of North America 50, The Arctic Ocean region. Geological Sciety of America, pp 539 - 549.

Kvenvolden, K.A. and Kastner, M., 1990. Gas hydrates of the Peruvian outer continental margin. In: Proc. ODP: Sci Results, 112, E. Suess and R. von Huene (Eds.). Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, Tx, pp. 517 - 526.

Kvenvolden, K.A., and Lorenson, T.D., 2001. The global occurence of natural gas hydrate. In: C.K. Paul and W.P. Dillon (Eds.). Natural Gas Hydrates. Occurence, distribution and detection, Geophysical Monograph 124, American Geophysical Union, p. 3 - 18.

Larousse F. and Auge C. 1968. Nouveau Petit Larousse en Couleurs Libraire, Larousse Paris, Georges Lang, Paris, 1662 pp.

Lavatus Prodeo 2012. Living in a 4C World.
http://Lavatusprodeo.net/archives/2010/08/16/living-in-a-4C-world

Lawver L.A., Dalziel I.W.D., Norton I.O., and Gahagan L.M., 2009. The Plates 2009 Atlas of Plate Reconstruction (750 Ma to Present Day). Plates Progress Report No. 325 - 0509. The University of Texas Technical Report. No. 196, p. 52.
http://www.ig.utexas.edu/research/projects/plates/250.htm

Lecture 5, 2014. Subduction Zones and Island Arcs.
http://www.ie.ac.uk/gl/art/g/209/lecture5/lecture5.html

Levitus et al. 2012. Global Ocean Heat Content. NOAA/NESDIS/NODS Ocean Climate Laboratory. Updated from Levitus et al. 2012. Global Oceanic Heat and Salt Content. In: NOAA National Oceanographic Data Center (NODS), United States Department of Commerce. http://www.nodc.noaa.gov/OCS/3M_HEAT_CONTENT/Index.html

Lide. D.R. and Frederikse H.P.R., 1995. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 75th Edition, CRC Press, London. pp. 1-1 - 1-33.

Liesowska, A. 2015. Dozens of new craters suspected in northern Russia. The Siberian Times.
http://siberiantimes.com/science/casestudy/news/n0127-dozens-of-mysterious-new-craters-suspected-in-northern-russia 23 February 2015.

Light M.P.R. 2014. Mantle Methane. High Rate of Spreading of the Arctic Atmospheric Global Warming Veil South of the Gulf Coast is Driven by Deep Seated Methane Release from Giant Mantle Geopressured-Geothermal Reservoirs below the Siberian Craton at Depths of 100 km to 300 km and at Temperatures above 1200 Degrees Celsius.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2014/02/mantle-methane.html

Light M.P.R. 2011b. Global Warming
http://globalwarming.mlight.blogspot.com

Light M.P.R., 2012. Global extinction within one human lifetime as a result of a spreading atmospheric Arctic methane heatwave and surface firestorm. Arctic-News.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/global-extinction-within-one-human.html

Light M.P.R., 2013. The Non - Disclosed Extreme Arctic Methane Threat. The 2013 Australian above average temperatures set a record of 0.22oC higher than the 12 month period prior to 2013 and confirm a mid - 21st century atmospheric methane - induced global deglaciation and major extinction event.
https://sites.google.com/site/runawayglobalwarming/the-non-disclosed-extreme-arctic-methane-threat

Light M.P.R. 2011a. Use of beamed interfering radio frequency transmissions to decompose Arctic atmospheric methane clouds. Edited by Sam Carana.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/decomposing-atmospheric-methane.html

Light M.P.R. 2011c. Stratospheric methane global warming veil. Edited by Sam Carana. In: Arctic News.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/stratospheric-methane-global-warming.html

Light M.P.R., 2012a. Global exctinction within one human lifetime as a result of a spreading atmospheric methane heatwave and surface firestorm. Edited by Sam Carana. In Arctic News.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/global-extinction-within-one-human.html

Light M.P.R., 2012b. How much time is there left to act, before methane hydrate releases will lead to human extinction? Edited by Sam Carana. In: Geo-Engineering.
http://geo-engineering.blogspot.com/2012/02/how-much-time-is-there-left-to-act.html

Light M.P.R. 2012c. Angels Proposal - A Proposal for the Prevention of Arctic Methane Induced Catastrophic Global Climate Change by Extraction of Methane from beneath the Permafrost/Arctic Methane Hydrates and its Storage and Sale as a Subsidized "Green Gas" Energy Source. LGS. 49 pp. In: Arctic News.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2012/05/proposal-to-extract-store-and-sell.html

Light M.P.R. 2012. Further Confirmation of a Probable Arctic Sea Ice Loss by Late 2015. Edited by Sam Carana. In: Arctic News.
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2012/09/further-confirmation-of-a-probable-arctic-sea-ice-loss-by-late-2015-loss.html

Light, M.P.R. et al., 2011b. Methane linked to seismic activity in the Arctic
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/seismic-activity.html

Light M.P.R. and Solana C., 2002a. Arctic methane hydrates - Mapping a potential greenhouse gas hazard. Abstract and Poster, EGS, Nice. - Appendix at:
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/seismic-activity.html

Light, M.P.R. and Solana, C. , 2002b- Arctic Methane Hydrates: A Potential Greenhouse Gas Hazard
http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002EGSGA..27.4077L

Light, M.P.R., Posey, H.H., Kyle, J.R., and Price P.E., 1987. Model for the origins of geopressured brines, hydrocarbons, caprocks and metallic mineral deposits; Gulf Coast, U.S.A., In: Lerch, Ian and O'Brien, J.J., Dynamical geology of salt and related structures: Orlando, Florida, Academic Press, pp. 787 - 830.

Light M.P.R., 1985. Structure, facies, continuity and internal properties of the Frio "A" sandstone, N.E. Hitchcock Field, Galveston County, Texas. In: Dorfman, M.H., and Morton R.A., eds., Geopressured - Geothermal Energy, Proceedings of the Sixth U.S. Gulf Coast Geopressured - Geothermal Energy Conference Pergamon, p. 229 - 238.

Li Z., Guo Z., Bai Z., Lin G., 2004. Geochemistry and Tectonic Environment and Reservoir Formation of Mantle - Derived Natural Gas in the Songiliao Basin, Northeastern China. Geotectonica et Metallogenia

Liu B., Wang B.S., Ji W.G., Kern H., Popp T., 2001. Closure of Micro - Cracks in Rock Samples under Confining Pressure. Chinese Journal of Geophysics. Vol 44, No. 3, 2001.
http://www.agu.org/WPS/cig/44/44.03/articles/440316.pdf

LIP, 2013. October 2013 LIP of the Month (Large Igneous Provinces).
http://www.largeigneousprovinces.org

Lopatin, N.V. 1971. Temperature and geologic time as factors in coalification (in Russian). Akad. Nauk SSSR. Izvestiya. Seriya Geologicheskaya, 3, pp.95 - 106.

MacDonald G.J., 1988. Major Questions about Deep Continental Structures. In: A. Bodeń K.G., Eriksson. Deep Drilling in Crystalline Bedrock, v.1. Berlin: Springer Verlag. pp. 28 -48. ISBN 3 -540 - 18995 - 5. Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Observation of the Continental Crust through Drilling held in Mora and Orso, Sweden, September 7 - 10, 1987.

Manley T.O. 1995. Branching of the Atlantic Water within the Greenland-Spitsbergen Passage. An estimate of recirculation. Journal of Geophysical Research 100: 20627

Marreo T.R. and Mason E. A. 1972. J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 1, 1.

Masters. J. 2009. Top Climate Story of 2008. Arctic Sea Ice Loss. Dr Jeff Masters Wunderblog.
http://www.wunderground.com/blog/JeffMasters/comment.html?entrynum=1177

Max, M.D., and Lowrie, A., 1993. Natural gas hydrates, Arctic and North Sea potential. In Vorren, T.O., Bergsager, E., Dahl-Stamnes, A., Holter, E., Johansen, B., lie, e., and Lund, T.B.. Arctic Geology and Petroleum Potential, Proceedings of the Norwegian Petroleum society Conference, 15 - 17 august 1990, tromso, Norway, Norwegian Petroleum Society (NPF), Special Publication 2, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 27 -53.

Merk J. 2012. CPSP118G Spring Semester SGC Colloquim. Climate and How it Works I. Physical Components. University of Maryland.
http://www.geol.umd.edu/sgc/lectures/climatepart1.html

Merali Z., 2004. Earth's Mantle can Generate Methane. Nature. doi:10.1038/news040913-5.
http://www.nature.com/news/2004/040913/fullnews040913-5.html

Mineral Commodities Survey - Helium. January 2011, USGS.
http://minerals/pubs/commodity/helium/mcs-2011-heliu.pdf

MIT. 2012. Mission 2011. Saving the Oceans. Climate Change
http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/M2011/finalwebsite/solutions/climate.shtml

Mitura, S., Mitura, K., Niedzielski, P., Louda R., Danilenko, V., 2006. Nanocrystalline diamond, its synthesis, properties and applications. Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, Vol 16, Issue 1-2, pp 9 -16.
http://journalamme.org/papers_cams05/1244.pdf

Morgan W. J. 1981. Hot Spot tracks and the opening of the Atlantic and Indian oceans. In C. Emiliani (Ed.) The Oceanic Lithosphere. Wiley, New York. pp. 443 - 487.

Morrison 2012. Sea Ice Death Spiral Driving Atlantic Water into Arctic Causing Wild Weather. Get Energy Smart! Now. Blogging for a Sustainable Energy Future.
http://getenergysmartnow.com/2012/01/20/sea-ice-death-spiral-driving-atlantic-water-into-arctic-causing-wild-weather/

Murphy D.M., Solomon S., Portmann R.W., Rosenlof K.H., Forster P.M., Wong T., 2009. An obervationally based energy balance for the Earth since 1950. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres (1984 - 2012), Vol. 114, Issue D17, 16 September 2009.

NASA global temperature data
http://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/tabledata_v3/GLB.Ts.txt

NASA, 2002. Global Temperature Anomalies in 0.1C. Goddard Institute for Space Studies., NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Earth Sciences Directorate.
http://www.giss.nasa.gov/data, updated December 2002

NASA, 2007. "Methane Blast" NASA, May 4, 2007. Test firing of a 7,500 pound thrust LOX/methane engine. Image credit Mike Masseea Aerospace.
http://Science.nasa.gov/science-at-nasa/2007/04may-methaneblast/

NASA, 2012. Atmospheric methane levels. AIRS 2006 - 2009 annual mean upper troposphere (359 Hpa) methane concentration (ppm).
http://daac.gsfc.nasa.gov/giovanni/

NASA, 2011, GISS surface temperature data. SBBX.Tsurf250, (18.9MB) suf air temp (1880-present) 250km smoothing.
ftp://data.giss.nasa.gov/pub/gistemp/download/

NASA, 2012. Global temperature data.
http://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/tabledata_v3/GLB.Ts.txt

Nassar, R., Bernath P.F., Boone, C.D., Manny, G.L., McLeod, S.D., Rinsland, C.P., Skelton, R., Walker, K.A., 2005. Stratospheric abundances of water and methane based on ACE-FTS measurements. geophysical Research Letters, Vol.32, L15504, 5 pp.
http://www/.atmosp.physics.utoronto.ca/~massar/Publications_pdfs/Nassar_water_methane_2005GL022383.pdf

Nataf H.C., Nakanishi I., Anderson D.L., 1986. Measurements of mantle wave velocities and inversion\ for lateral heterogeneities and anisotropy. Part III. Inversion. J. Geophys. Res., 91, 7261 - 7307.

National Snow and Ice Data center (NSIDC), 2011a. The Polar Vortex.
http://nsidc.org/

http://arcticmet/patterns/polar_vortex.html

National Snow and Ice Data center (NSIDC), 2011b. Arctic Climatology and Meteorology,
http://nsidc.org/articmet/factors/winds.html

Naumer T., 2012. Triggering permafrost meltdown is closer than we think.
http://Climatechangepsychology.blogspot.com.es/2012/04/triggering-permafrost-meltdown-
is.html

Neven, 2011. Arctic Sea Ice Blog. Interesting News and Data;
http://neven1.typepad.com/blog/2011/09/piomas-august-2011.html

NOAA 2011a. Huge sudden atmospheric methane spike Arctic Svalbard (north of - Norway)
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/need-for-geo-engineering.html

NOAA 2011b. Huge sudden methane spike recorded at Barrow (BRW), Alaska, United States. Generated ESRL/GMO – 2011. December 14-17-21 pm
http://arctic-news.blogspot.com/p/need-for-geo-engineering.html

NOAA ESRL (2012). Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Levels, 2009. NOAA ESRL data.
ftp:ftp.cmdl.noaa.gov/ccg/co2/trends/co2_annmean_mlo.txt

NOAA, 1999. Paleoclimatology Program. International Ice Core Data Cooperative.
Vostok Ice Core Data.
http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/palaeo/icecore/antarctica/vostok/vostok.html

NSIDC 2011a. The Polar Vortex. National Snow and Ice Data Center,
http://nsidc.org/

http://arcticmet/patterns/polar_vortex.html

Norwegian Polar Institute, 2001. Svalbard, Climate:
http://www.npolar.no/en/the-arctic/svalbard/

Nuccitelli D., Way R., Painting R., Church J., Cook J., 2012. Comment on "ocean heat content and Earth's radiation imbalance.II Relation to climate shifts". Physics Letters A. Vol. 376, Issue 45, 1 October 2012, 3466 - 3468.

Olivier, C.P., 1942. Long Enduring Meteor Trains. Proc. Amer. phil. Soc. 35. p.93

Olivier, C.P., 1948. long Enduring Meteor Trains. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 91, p. 315
(second paper).

Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P. and Co-authors, 2007. Impacts, Adaption and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden and C.E. Hanson, Eds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 23 – 78.

Paull et al. 2007. Origin of pingo-like features on the Beaufort Sea Shelf and their possible relationship to decomposing methane hydrates. Geophysical Research Letters 34, L01603. http://www.agu.org/pobs/crossref/2007/2006GL027977.shtml

Pravettoni, R., 2009. WWF Arctic Feedbacks Report. UNEP.GRID Arendal.
http://www.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/annual-temperatures-increases-for-2001-2005-relative-to-1951-1980-6beo

Perkin R.G. and Lewis F.I. 1984. Mixing in the West Spitsbergen Current. Journal of Physical Oceanography 14 (8), 1315

Peterson J.B., Helium USGS.
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/helium/330495.pdf

Petrology (2013). Composition of the Lithospheric mantle. Location map of Udachnaya Kimberlite Fields.
http://petrology.oxfordjournals.org

Reynold N. 2012. Methane hydrate technology fuels a new energy regime.
http://www.methanehydrate.org

Rice D., 2012. Arctic Sea Ice at Lowest Level on Record. Sci-Tech Today. Environment.
http://www.sci-tech-today.com/story.xhtml?story_id=130007AH6NIG

http://www.methanehydrates.org

Rianovosti, 2011. Russian, US scientists set to study methane release in Arctic. ScienceRSS
http://en.rian.ru/science/20110902/166364635.html

Robertscribbler, 2014. Methane monster finding cracks in the Earth's defenses. Is the global methane sink starting to fade.
http://robertscribbler.wordpress.com/2014/04/18/methane-monster-finding-cracks-in-earths-defenses-is-the-global-methane-sink-starting-to-fade

Robertscribbler, 2015. Siberian Methane Crater Locations. In total, 7 methane blow holes with features similar to the Yamal Crater have been discovered.
http://robertscribbler.wordpress.com

Romm J. 2012. Why the Arctic Sea Ice Death Spiral Matters. Think Progress - Climate Progress.
http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2012/08/26/745571/why-the-arctic-sea-ice-death-spiral-matters


Rutgers, 2013a. Atlantic Ocean Gyre Map.
http://www.i-cool.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/ce058700fg0010.gif

Rutgers, 2013b. South Atlantic Gyre. I-Cool. International Coalition of Ocean Observing Laboratories.
http://www.i-cool.org/?p=4916

Saldo R. 2012. AIRS data. DTU Space, Technical University of Denmark.
http://www.seaice.dk

Saloranta T.M., Svendsen H. 2001. Across the Arctic front west of Spitsbergen. High-
resolution CTD sections from 1998 - 2000. Polar Research 20 (2). 177. 1751 - 8369.

Science Daily, 2011. Record Depletion of Arctic Ozone Layer Causing Increased UV Radiation in Scandinavia.
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/04/110405102202.htm

Scientific American, 2012. Hurricane Sandy: An Unprecidented Disaster.
http://www.scientificamerican.com/report.cfm?id=hurricane-sandy-2012

Scott H.P., Hemley R.J., , Mao H.K., Herschbach D.R., Fried L.E., Howard W.M., Bastea H.S., Generation of Methane in the Earth's Mantle. In situ high pressure - temperature mantle measurements of carbonate reduction. PNAS vol. 101, no. 29. pp 14023 - 14026
http://www.pnas.org/content/101/39/14093.full

Sekretov S.H. 1988. Correction. Petroleum Potential of Laptev Sea Basins. Geological, Tectonic and Geodynamic Factors:In: Polarforschung 68. Tessensohn F., Roland N.W., (eds) ICAMIII. International Conference on Arctic Margins. Celle (Germany). 12 - 16 October, 1998. pp 179 - 186.

Semiletov, I. 2011. Quoted from Itar-Tass. Heavy methane emissions found in the Arctic Eastern Sector. Itar-Tass. September 26, 2011.
http://www.itar-tass.com/en/c154/233799.html

Shakel M., 2005. Sustainability: Our Environment.
http://www.earthethicsinstitute.org/facultycurriculum-pdf/sustainability%20exploration20in%Mathematics.pdf

Shakhova N., 2013. A thawing ocean floor pours methane into the atmosphere and it's only getting worse. PRI. Science. Tech and Environment.
http://www.pri.org/stories/2013-12-12/thawing-ocean-floor-pours-methane-atmosphere-and-its-only-getting-worse

Shakhova N., Semiletov, I., Salyuk, A., and Kosmach, D., 2008. Anomalies of methane in the atmosphere over the East Siberian Shelf. Is there any sign of methane leakage from shallow shelf hydrates? EGU General Assembly 2008. Geophysical Research Abstracts, 10, EGU2008-A-01526
http://www.cosis.net/abstracts/EGU2008/01526/EGU2008-A-01526.pdf

Shakhova, N. and Semiletov, I., 2010a. Methane release from the East Siberian Shelf and the potential for abrupt climate change. Presentation in November 30, 2010.
http://symposium2010.serdp-estcp.org/Technical-Sessions/1A

Shakhova N., Semiletov, I., Leifer, I., Salyuk, A., Rekant, P., and Kosmach, D. 2010b. Geochemical and geophysical evidence of methane release over the East Siberian Arctic Shelf. Journal Geophys. Research 115, C08007
http://europa.agu.org/?view=article&uri=/journals/jc/jc1008/2009jcoo5602/2009jc005602.xml

Shakhova, N., Semiletov, I., Salyuk, A., Yusupov, V., Kosmach, D., and Gustafsson, O., 2010c. Extensive methane venting to the atmosphere from sediments of the East Siberian Arctic Shelf. Science.
http://www.sciencemag.org/content/327/5970/1246.short

Sloan, E.D., 1998. Clathrate hydrates of natural gas. 2nd ed., Marcel Dekker, New York, 705 pp.

Smithson S.B., Wenzel F., Ganchin Y.V., Morozov I.B., 2000. Seismic results at Kola and K.T.B. deep scientific boreholes; velocities, reflections, fluids and crustal composition. Tectonophysics 329 (1-4), 301 - 307. Bibcode. 2000 Tectp 329. 3015. doi; 10. 1016/50040 - 1951 (00)00200-6.

Sohn R.A., et al. 2007. Explosive volcanism on the ultraslow - spreading Gakkel Ridge, Arctic Ocean.
https://darchive.mblwhoilibrary.org/bitstream/handle/1912/2636/2007-12-13258A_text.pdf?sequence=1

Solana, C., and Light, M.P.R., 2002. Can we turn a hazard into a development tool. The case of methane hydrates in the permafrost. Abstract and Poster. EGS, Nice.

Speer K. 2012. How ocean currents affect global climate is a question oceanographers may be close to awnsering. Florida State University.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2012-08/fsu-hoc082612.php

http://www.methanehydrates.org

Sternowski, R.H., 2012. Lecture 7. Softronics ltd.
http://www.softronicsltd.com

Stroeve, J.E., Serreze, M.C., Holland, M.M., Kay, J.E., Malanik, J., and Barret, 2012. The Arctics rapidly shrinking sea ice cover: a research synthesis. Clim. Change. 110, (4.- Mar), p. 1005 - 1027.

Sverdrup, Johnson and Fleming, 1942. In; introduction to Physical Oceanography.
http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/ocng_textbook/chapter 11/chapter11_04.htm
publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=kt167nb66r&doc.view=popup&fig.
ent=http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/data/13030/6r/kt167nb66r/figures/kt167nb66r_fig187.gif

Table 1. (P - T conditions in) Journey to the Center of the Earth.
http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/journey/journey.htm

Tharp. M., and Frankel, H., 1986. In: Natural History, October 1986. North American Museum of Natural History, p. 1 – 6.
http://www.google.com/url?.sa=t&rt

Thomson L.A., 1988. Elastic Anisotropy due to Aligned Cracks. Geophysics.

Trenberth K., 2014. Deep ocean warming is coming back to haunt us: Record Warmth for 2014 likely as Equatorial Heat Rises.
http://robertscribbler.wordpress.com/2014/05/16/deep-ocean-warming-is-coming-back-to-haunt-us-record-warmth-for-2014

Tschudi, M.A., Stroeve, D.K., Perovich, D.K., and Maslanik, J.A., 2012. Arctic Sea Ice Melt Pond Coverage Derived from Modis and from High Resolution Satellite Imagery. Remote Sensing of the Environment. NSIDC.
http://cires.colorado.edu/websites/nsidc/Publications/publications.php?id=366

Tupolev, 2013. Tu - 155 built to use cyrogenic fuel.
http://www.Tupolev.ru/English/Picture.asp?PubID=1788

University of Washington 2000. "North pole Hydrography 1991 - 2000 compared with EWG Atlas Climatology". EWG Atlas 1950's. Oden 1991. Scicex 1993-1999. North Pole Environmental Observatory 2000. Cast 18.

Velard G. 2006. Inertial Confinement Nuclear Fusion: A Historical Approach by Pioneers. Lawrence Livermore Laboratory Report. UCRL-Book-218579

Vizcarra N. 2012. Arctic Sea Ice Reaches Lowest Extent Ever Recorded. University of Colorado CU- Boulder Research Team.
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2012-08/uoca-asi082712.php

Wales J., 2013. 2014.

Wikipedia; Topography of the Arctic Ocean
http://en.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/IBCAO_betamap.jpg

Wikipedia, Carbon Dioxide.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide

Wikipedia, Climate of the Arctic.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/climate_of_the_Arctic

Wikipedia; Columbia River Basalt Group
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_River_Basalt_Group

Wikipedia, Current Sea Level Rise.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_sea_level_rise

Wikipedia, Density of Air.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density_of_air

Wikipedia.,2012. Enthalpy of Fusion.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enthalpy_of_fusion

Wikipedia; Gakkel Ridge
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gakkel_Ridge

Wikipedia, Global Warming.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming

Wikipedia; Gulf Stream.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Golfstrom.jpg

Wikipedia, Iceberg.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceberg

Wikipedia, Indian Summer.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_summer

Wikipedia, Jason-1.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/jason-1

Wikipedia; Methane.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane

Wikipedia, Natural Gas.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Gas

Wikipedia, North Sea.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Sea

Wikipedia: Schematic Mid-Ocean Ridge
http://upload.wikipedia.org/wikimedia/commons/b/b8/

Wikipedia; South Atlantic Gyre
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:South_Atlantic_Gyre.png

Wikipedia; West Spitsbergen Current
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West-Spitsbergen-Current

Wikipedia; Sverdrup
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sverdrup

Weatheronline, 2013.
http://www.weatheronline-co.uk/reports/wxfacts/North-Atlantic-Drift-Gulf-Stream.htm

Westbrook G.K., Thatcher K.E., Rohling E.J., Pitrowski A.M., Palike, H., Osborne A.H., Nisbet E.G., Minshuli, T.A. et al. 2009. Escape of methane gas from the seabed along the West Spitsbergen continental margin. Geophysical Research Letters 36 (15). L15608.

Whitcomb J.H., Garmany J.D., and Anderson D.L., 1973. Earthquake prediction. Variation of seismic velocities before the San Francisco earthquake, 180, 632 - 635.

Whiticar M.J., 1994. Correlation of Natural Gases and their Sources. Chapter 16, Part IV. Identification and Characterisation, AAPG Special Volumes. Volume M60. The Petroleum System - From Source to Trap. pp 261 - 283.

Wignall P. 2009. Miracle Planet: Episode 4, Part 2. Coproduced by NHK (Japan) and the National Film Board of Canada (NFB).
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=exfNNDExxic&list=PL0200B1S24E220C5A&feature=playerembedded#!

Windley B.F., 1986. The Evolving Continents. 2nd Edition. John Windley and Sons. 399pp.

Winkler H.G.F., 1976. Petrogenesis of Metamorphic Rocks. Fourth Edidtion. Springer - Verlag, New York, 334 pp.

Wofsy, S.C. et al. 2009. (image: HIPPO-1 flight along the date line, January 2009) HIAPER Pole-to-Pole Observations (HIPPO): fine-grained, global-scale measurements of climatically important atmospheric gases and aerosols Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A (2011) 369, 2073–2086 doi:10.1098/rsta.2010.0313
http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/369/1943/2073.full.html

Yakovlev A.V., Bushenkova N.A., Koulakov I. Yu., Dobretsov N.L., 2012. Structure of the upper mantle in the Circum - Pacific region from regional seismic tomography. Science Direct. Russian Geology and Geophysics 53, 963 - 971.
http://www.ivan.art.com/sciences/PAPERS/2012_arctic.pdf

Yirka B. 2012. New research explains how diamond rich kimberlite makes its way to Earth's surface. Phys Org.
http://phys.org/news/2012-01-diamond-rich-kimberlite-earth-surface.html

Yurganov, L., 2012a. Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) data from NASA's Aqua Satellite. Index of/pub/yurganov/methane/MAPS/
ftp://asl.umbc.edu/yurganov/methane/MAPS/

Yurganov, L., 2012b. Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) data from NASA's Aqua Satellite.
ftp://asl.umbc.edu/pub/yurganov/methane/AIRS_CH4%20_2002-2012.jpg

Zhang J. and Rothrock D.A. 2012. Arctic Sea Ice Volume Anomaly, Version 2. Polar Science Center, Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington.
http://psc.apl.washington.edu./wordpress/research/projects/arctic-sea-ice-volume-anomaly/

Zhang J. and Rothrock D.A. 2003.. Modelling global sea ice with a thickness and enthalpy distribution model in generalized curvilinear co-ordinates. Mon.Wea.Rev., 131(5), 681 - 697.

Zonenshain L.P., Kuzmin M.I., and Natapov L.M., 1990. Geology of the USSR. A Plate Tectonic Synthesis. AGU Geodynam. Ser. Monogr. 21

Zuppero A., US. Department of Energy, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory - Discovery of Water Ice Nearly Everywhere in the Solar System.

Zwart H.J. and Dornsiepen U.F. 1980. The Variscan and pre - Variscan tectonic evolution of the Central and Western Europe: a Tentative Model. In J. Cogne and M. Slansky (Eds), Geology of Europe. B.R.G.M. Orleans. France. pp 226 - 232.


Figure References

Figure 7. Enhanced Lucy Transmission System. Image from Light and Carana 2012. Lidar methane detecting laser from Ehret, 2012. Methane heating laser from Sternowski, 2012. Hydroxyl formation from iopscience.iop.org, 2013.


North Siberian Arctic Permafrost Methane Eruption Vents | by Malcolm Light, Harold Hensel and Sam Caranahttp://arctic-news.blogspot.com/2015/04/north-siberian-arctic-permafrost-methane-eruption-vents.html

Posted by Sam Carana on Friday, April 10, 2015